Sanctions as a Tool for Peace: Holding Rwanda and M23 Accountable in the Eastern DRC

Why Sanctioning James Kabarebe Matters: A Deep Dive into Rwanda’s Role in the Eastern DRC Conflict

On 20 February 2025, the U.S. Department of the Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) delivered a clear message to those instigating conflict in Africa’s Great Lakes region: accountability is a necessity. In an unprecedented move, OFAC imposed sanctions on James Kabarebe, Rwanda’s Minister of State for Regional Integration, and Lawrence Kanyuka Kingston, a senior member of the March 23 terrorist’s outfit (M23), alongside two of Kanyuka’s companies registered in the United Kingdom and France. This decision highlights the ongoing tensions in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), where M23 terrorists, designated as such by the U.S. and the United Nations, have taken control of key urban centres and mining hubs, causing widespread displacement and human rights violations.

The situation is of utmost importance. At the heart of this crisis are not only the humanitarian consequences but also the strategic importance of the DRC’s mineral wealth, which includes cobalt, coltan, and gold—resources that are vital to global technology and green energy supply chains. As Rwanda’s defence forces and M23 expand their territorial control, they threaten not only regional stability but also the integrity of international efforts to promote peace and sustainable development. This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the political alliances, economic interests and military operations driving this conflict, offering strategic insights into the implications of these sanctions for the future of the DRC, Rwanda and the broader international community.

Overview of the Sanctions Announcement: A Strategic Move by the U.S.

The announcement from the U.S. Department of the Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) is a significant development in the ongoing efforts to stabilise the volatile eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The U.S. government has taken decisive action by designating prominent figures such as James Kabarebe and Lawrence Kanyuka Kingston, along with their associated business entities. This move underscores a strong commitment to dismantling the networks that fuel and perpetuate the conflict in this resource-rich region.

The sanctions were officially enacted under Executive Order 13413, which authorises the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) to impose financial restrictions on individuals and entities deemed responsible for actions that threaten the peace, security, or stability of the DRC. Given Mr Kabarebe’s key role in orchestrating Rwanda’s support for M23 terrorists, he was designated for his direct involvement in policies and actions that destabilise the DRC. His actions demonstrate an extensive range of influence, extending beyond political influence, and directly managing revenue streams derived from the illicit extraction and export of critical minerals from Congolese territories. This funding is then used to support further military operations.

Lawrence Kanyuka Kingston, a spokesperson for M23 and the Congo River Alliance, is also subject to sanctions due to his significant contributions to the propaganda machinery of these terrorist outfits. His media and diplomatic outreach efforts have been instrumental in shaping narratives that justify and legitimize the violent expansionist strategies of M23. Moreover, his ownership of Kingston Fresh and Kingston Holding adds a commercial dimension to his sanctionable activities, highlighting the interconnectedness of terrorism ambitions and economic exploitation.

These sanctions are not merely punitive measures, but are designed to disrupt the operational capabilities of M23 terrorists and its allies. By freezing assets and prohibiting transactions involving the sanctioned individuals and their entities, the U.S. aims to sever the financial lifelines that sustain these terrorist organisations. This strategic move is expected to significantly hinder their ability to fund terrorism campaigns and exert control over the mineral-rich areas of the DRC.

Furthermore, the timing of these sanctions is crucial. Recent gains by M23 terrorists and the Rwandan Defense Force (RDF), including the capture of Goma and Bukavu, have made it imperative to take action. The U.S. intervention aims to halt further advances and potentially reverse the current trajectory of escalating violence and instability in the region.

The sanctions announced by OFAC are intended to recalibrate the power dynamics in the eastern DRC. By targeting the financial and operational infrastructures of key players like Kabarebe and Kanyuka, the U.S. hopes to pave the way for a more peaceful resolution to the enduring conflict. This action underscores the U.S.’s resolve in promoting regional stability and sets a precedent for how international powers might address similar crises driven by complex interplays of politics, economics, and military force.

James Kabarebe: Architect of Conflict and Exploitation

James Kabarebe’s role in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is both multifaceted and deeply entrenched, spanning decades of military strategy, political manoeuvring and economic exploitation. As a former general in the Rwanda Defence Force (RDF) and now the Minister of State for Regional Integration, Kabarebe has consistently positioned himself at the nexus of Rwanda’s geopolitical ambitions and the DRC’s fragile stability.

His influence extends beyond the battlefield, permeating the corridors of power and the clandestine world of illicit mineral trade, where he plays a central role in the destabilization of the region.

Military Leadership and Strategic Coordination

Kabarebe’s military career commenced during the Rwandan liberation War, where he ascended through the ranks to become a trusted confident of criminal Paul Kagame. His expertise in unconventional warfare and insurgent tactics garnered him a reputation as a formidable strategist. However, his most controversial contributions arose in the aftermath of the 1994 Rwandan genocide, when Rwanda intervened in the First and Second Congo Wars. During these conflicts, Kabarebe played a pivotal role in commanding RDF operations within the DRC, often operating under the guise of supporting rebel factions against the regime of Mobutu Sese Seko and later Laurent-Désiré Kabila.

These interventions were justified by Rwanda as necessary to neutralise threats posed by Hutu extremist groups who fled to the DRC following the genocide. However, critics have argued that Kabarebe’s military campaigns were also driven by Rwanda’s desire to secure access to the DRC’s mineral resources.

Since then, Kabarebe has maintained his influence over the RDF’s covert operations in the eastern DRC. As a liaison between the Rwandan government and M23, he has orchestrated the flow of arms, intelligence, and logistical support to the terrorist group. This relationship has been instrumental in M23’s resurgence and its recent territorial gains, including the capture of Goma and Bukavu.Kabarebe’s coordination ensures that M23 operates not as an isolated terrorist faction but as an extension of Rwanda’s broader strategic objectives in the region.

Economic Exploitation and Mineral Trade

In addition to his military leadership role, Kabarebe has become a key figure in Rwanda’s economic exploitation of the DRC’s mineral wealth. The eastern DRC is home to some of the world’s largest deposits of critical minerals, including cobalt, coltan, and gold, which are essential for the manufacturing of electronics, electric vehicles, and renewable energy technologies. Kabarebe has been directly involved in the management of extraction and export of these resources, ensuring their passage through Rwanda’s formal economy while obscuring their illicit origins.

This system of exploitation operates through a network of intermediaries, smuggling routes and shell companies. Mining sites in North and South Kivu provinces are controlled by M23 and other proxy militias, who extract minerals under coercive conditions. These materials are then transported across the porous border into Rwanda, where they are processed and exported as “Rwandan” products.Kabarebe oversees this operation, ensuring that revenues generated from the sale of Congolese minerals bolster Rwanda’s economy while simultaneously financing M23’s terrorism campaigns.

One notable example of Kabarebe’s involvement is the Rubaya mining area, one of the largest sources of coltan in the world. After M23 terrorists seized control of Rubaya in late 2024, reports surfaced of increased mineral exports from Rwanda, despite the country’s limited domestic reserves. Investigations by international watchdogs have linked these exports to Kabarebe’s oversight, highlighting how his dual roles as a political figure and military strategist enable him to exploit the DRC’s resources with impunity.

Political Influence and Diplomatic Maneuvering

Kabarebe’s influence extends beyond the battlefield and the mining sector into the realm of diplomacy, where he serves as Rwanda’s primary representative in negotiations and discussions concerning the Great Lakes region. In this capacity, he can shape narratives that downplay Rwanda’s involvement in the DRC conflict while emphasizing the need for regional cooperation. For instance, Kabarebe has frequently argued that Rwanda’s actions in the DRC are aimed at stabilising the region by combating armed groups and fostering economic development. This narrative serves to mask the underlying motives of resource extraction and territorial control.

His diplomatic efforts are complemented by his ability to manipulate public perception. Through carefully crafted statements and media appearances, Kabarebe portrays the M23 as a legitimate political movement seeking to address grievances within the DRC, rather than a terrorist outfit responsible for widespread atrocities. This messaging aligns with Rwanda’s broader strategy of presenting itself as a stabilising force in the region, even as its actions contribute to the very instability it claims to oppose.

The Human Cost of Kabarebe’s Actions

The consequences of Kabarebe’s actions are having a significant impact on the people of the eastern DRC, as his orchestration of military campaigns and economic exploitation has led to cycles of violence, displacement, and poverty.Thousands of civilians have been killed or displaced as M23 and the RDF advance into new territories, often targeting communities perceived as supportive of the Congolese government or rival militias. The use of sexual violence, forced labour and child recruitment is widespread in areas under M23’s control, and the psychological impact of these actions is likely to be significant and long-lasting.

Kabarebe’s involvement in the mineral trade has also had a negative impact on governance and corruption in the DRC, as he and his allies are extracting the country’s natural wealth, depriving local populations of the economic benefits that should accrue from their resources. This ongoing plundering perpetuates a cycle of dependency and underdevelopment, ensuring that the eastern DRC remains a battleground for external actors seeking to profit from its riches.

James Kabarebe’s involvement in the terrorism in the eastern DRC is well-documented. In fact, he is widely regarded as the driving force behind it. His military leadership, economic exploitation and diplomatic manoeuvring have created a self-reinforcing system of instability that serves Rwanda’s interests while having a devastating effect on the DRC. It is vital to understand his role if we are to grasp the complexities of the crisis and identify pathways toward accountability and peace.

M23’s Expansion and Human Rights Abuses: A Growing Shadow Over the Eastern DRC

The resurgence of the March 23 terrorists (M23) has had a significant impact on the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), transforming the region into a theatre of relentless conflict and suffering. The group first appeared in 2012 and gained notoriety for its brutal tactics and rapid territorial expansion. In 2013, it was temporarily subdued by a joint effort from the Congolese military and the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade. However, the outfit re-emerged in late 2021 with the support of the Rwandan Defence Force (RDF) and has since escalated its campaign of terror and conquest.

Territorial Advances and Strategic Seizures

Since its resurgence, M23 has made significant progress in expanding its territorial control across North and South Kivu provinces, reaching a notable high point with the capture of Goma, the bustling provincial capital of North Kivu, at the end of January 2025. This strategic victory not only represented a significant tactical success but also sent a powerful symbolic message, demonstrating M23’s capacity to seize and hold major urban centres. The battle for Goma was fierce, resulting in thousands of civilian casualties and widespread destruction, forcing tens of thousands to flee their homes searching for safety.

Following the seizure of Goma, M23 and RDF terrorists turned their sights southward, capturing the Kavumu Airport, a critical transportation hub in eastern DRC. This strategic acquisition not only facilitated the movement of terrorists and supplies but also disrupted vital air links for humanitarian aid and commerce. The momentum continued with the capture of Bukavu, the provincial capital of South Kivu, and the advance continued apace. Each territorial gain expanded M23’s influence and intensified the humanitarian crisis in the region.

Human Rights Abuses: A Trail of Devastation

The expansion of M23’s control has been accompanied by a series of human rights abuses, as reported by various human rights organisations and eyewitness accounts. These accounts paint a grim picture of the atrocities committed against the civilian population, including killings, attacks on civilians, sexual violence, abductions and forced displacements.

Sexual violence has been used as a weapon of war by M23 terrorists, with women and girls often targeted indiscriminately, suffering horrific abuses that have led to severe physical and psychological trauma. The use of sexual violence not only terrorises communities but also serves to destabilise societal structures, further entrenching the chaos and fear that M23 terrorists thrives upon.

There has also been a surge in abductions, with children being particularly vulnerable. Many have been coerced into joining M23 terrorist ranks, where they face indoctrination and combat training, and are deprived of their childhood and education, becoming pawns in a larger geopolitical game. The forced displacement of civilians has led to overcrowded refugee camps with inadequate resources, exacerbating health risks and increasing mortality rates among the displaced populations.

The Impact on Local Communities

The impact of M23’s expansion on local communities has been catastrophic, with loss of life and limb being just one of the consequences. The prolonged terrorism has also had a significant economic impact, with markets being destroyed, farms abandoned and schools closed, leaving entire communities without means of livelihood or education. There is also a pervasive sense of fear and insecurity, with the constant threat of violence disrupting daily life and eroding trust within and between communities.

The occupation of major cities like Goma and Bukavu has had profound economic implications, with these urban centres, once vibrant hubs of commerce and culture, seeing their economies collapse under M23’s rule. Businesses have closed and unemployment has soared, pushing many families deeper into poverty, whilst the disruption of essential services, including healthcare and water supply, has further compounded the suffering of the local populace.

The expansion of M23 terrorists and the accompanying human rights abuses have had a significant impact on the eastern DRC, leaving an indelible mark on the region’s population. The actions of these terrorists have compounded an already critical humanitarian situation, creating a cycle of violence and deprivation that threatens to engulf the entire region. As the M23 continues its advance, the international community is under mounting pressure to intervene effectively and decisively to restore peace and protect vulnerable populations caught in the crossfire.

Lawrence Kanyuka Kingston: The Voice Behind the Terrorism

Lawrence Kanyuka Kingston is a key player in the ongoing terrorist activities in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). His dual roles as a spokesperson for the March 23 terrorists (M23) and the Congo River Alliance give him significant influence over the narrative surrounding the terrorism. His strategic positioning within these terrorists outfits allows him to shape public opinion and manage their public relations, playing a crucial role in garnering support and legitimacy for their terrorism campaigns.

Messaging Strategy and Media Outreach

As the civilian representative for M23, Kanyuka has strategically crafted a narrative that seeks to justify the group’s military actions and territorial expansions. Through carefully orchestrated media appearances and press releases, he presents M23 not as a terrorist group, but as a necessary revolutionary force fighting against governmental corruption and neglect in the DRC. This portrayal attempts to sway both local and international public opinion, framing M23’s advances as liberation rather than terrorism.

Beyond mere rhetoric, Kanyuka actively engages with international media outlets to ensure that M23’s perspective is heard globally, securing interviews and op-eds in reputable publications and thereby amplifying the outfit’s voice, often overshadowing the voices of victims and detractors. His articulate demeanour and strategic communication skills make him a formidable opponent in the court of public opinion, complicating diplomatic efforts to isolate M23 terrorists internationally.

Diplomatic Outreach and International Relations

In addition to his media activities, Kanyuka plays a pivotal role in M23’s diplomatic outreach, serving as a liaison between the outfit and potential foreign allies, advocating for political and financial support. His efforts are focused on building a coalition of nations and entities sympathetic to M23’s cause, leveraging geopolitical tensions and historical grievances to secure backing. This diplomatic manoeuvring is crucial for sustaining M23’s terrorism, as it secures not only moral support but also tangible resources and safe havens.

Kanyuka’s diplomatic acumen is evident in his ability to navigate complex international relations, often exploiting rifts between African nations and Western powers. By positioning M23 terrorists as a bulwark against regional instability, he appeals to countries wary of the DRC’s volatility spilling over their borders. This strategic alignment provides a dual benefit, both militarily and politically, by hindering a unified international response to M23’s terrorism activities.

Business Ties and Economic Interests

Aside from his roles in media and diplomacy, Kanyuka’s influence is bolstered by his extensive business ties, particularly through his ownership of Kingston Fresh and Kingston Holding. These companies, registered in the United Kingdom and France respectively, serve as conduits for laundering proceeds from the illicit mineral trade that funds M23’s terrorist operations. These enterprises provide Kanyuka with a veneer of legitimacy and access to international markets.

The intertwining of Kanyuka’s business and terrorism interests creates a symbiotic relationship that fuels M23’s expansion. Profits from the mineral-rich territories controlled by M23 terrorists are channelled through these entities, obscuring their origins and legitimising them in the eyes of unsuspecting international partners. This economic strategy not only sustains M23’s terrorism campaigns but also enriches Kanyuka personally, incentivising his continued involvement and advocacy for the outfit.

In summary, Lawrence Kanyuka Kingston’s roles as a spokesperson, diplomat, and businessman make him a highly valuable asset to M23 and the Congo River Alliance terrorist outfits. His ability to influence public perception, forge international alliances, and manage economic interests highlights the multifaceted nature of his contribution to the terrorism. It is crucial to understand his influence in order to comprehend the broader dynamics at play in the eastern DRC and devise effective strategies to counteract the destabilising effects of his actions.

Impact of the Sanctions on Targeted Individuals and Entities: Disrupting Networks of Power and Profit

The U.S. Department of the Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) has imposed sanctions on individuals and entities involved in supporting the destabilising activities of James Kabarebe, Lawrence Kanyuka Kingston and their associated entities. These measures are designed not only to penalise those directly involved in fueling the terrorism in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) but also to send a clear message to others who might consider engaging in similar activities. By targeting key figures and their business networks, the sanctions aim to sever the financial lifelines that enable the continuation of violence and exploitation in the region.

Financial Implications: Freezing Assets and Blocking Transactions

The sanctions involve the freezing of all property and interests in property belonging to the designated individuals and entities that fall under U.S. jurisdiction. This includes any assets held in U.S. banks or controlled by U.S. persons, effectively cutting off access to a significant portion of the global financial system. For individuals such as Kabarebe and Kanyuka, whose influence is significantly bolstered by their ability to manage funds internationally, this restriction poses a substantial challenge to their terrorism operations.

The sanctions extend beyond personal assets to encompass entities owned or controlled by the sanctioned individuals. For instance, Kingston Fresh and Kingston Holding, both owned by Kanyuka, are now subject to the same restrictions. This means that any transactions involving these companies that pass through U.S. financial institutions or involve U.S. persons are prohibited unless authorised by a specific licence from OFAC. Such measures severely limit the companies’ ability to conduct business internationally, potentially leading to their isolation from global markets.

Moreover, the sanctions create a ripple effect throughout the networks associated with the targeted individuals. Banks and financial institutions worldwide, wary of violating U.S. sanctions, are likely to sever ties with these entities and their affiliates. This risk-averse behaviour can lead to a broader financial isolation, compounding the initial impact of the sanctions. The inability to access banking services and conduct legitimate business transactions can cripple operations and deter potential partners from engaging with sanctioned entities.

Operational Challenges: Disruption of Militant Activities

The financial constraints imposed by the sanctions are expected to result in operational challenges for M23 terrorists and their allies, given their reduced access to funds. This will significantly hamper the ability of these groups to procure weapons, pay fighters and maintain logistical support. For Kabarebe, whose role involves coordinating the flow of resources to M23 terrorists, the sanctions disrupt a critical component of his strategy to sustain the terrorist outfit’s terrorism campaigns.

The sanctions also target the economic exploitation of the DRC’s mineral wealth, a cornerstone of M23’s funding model. By blocking transactions involving entities linked to the illicit mineral trade, the U.S. aims to cut off a major revenue stream for the outfit. This could lead to a decline in the extraction and export of critical minerals such as coltan and cobalt, which are often smuggled out of the DRC through Rwanda. The disruption of this trade is likely to negatively impact M23’s finances and on Rwanda’s economic interests, given that Kabarebe’s management of mineral exports has been integral to channelling Congolese resources through Rwanda’s formal economy.

Psychological and Reputational Damage

The impact of the sanctions extends beyond the financial and operational aspects, giving rise to significant psychological and reputational consequences for the designated individuals and entities. Being publicly identified as a threat to peace and stability can tarnish their reputation on the international stage, isolating them from diplomatic circles and potential allies. For Kabarebe, whose diplomatic role as Minister of State for Regional Integration involves engaging with international partners, this reputational damage could potentially compromise his ability to negotiate and advocate on behalf of Rwanda.

Similarly, Kanyuka’s influence as a spokesperson and diplomat for M23 terrorists is likely to wane as the sanctions expose the illicit nature of his activities. The designation of his companies, Kingston Fresh and Kingston Holding, further erodes his credibility and complicates his efforts to present M23 terrorists as a legitimate political movement. The stigma associated with sanctions can deter even non-sanctioned entities from associating with the targeted individuals, fearing guilt by association or potential repercussions.

Broader Implications for Allied Networks

The sanctions will also have broader implications for the networks of allies and intermediaries connected to Kabarebe and Kanyuka. Financial institutions, businesses, and individuals who have previously collaborated with the sanctioned entities should be aware that they may face increased scrutiny and potential legal risks. This heightened vigilance can lead to a chilling effect, where entities choose to distance themselves from any association with the sanctioned parties to avoid exposure to sanctions violations.

For instance, companies involved in the mineral supply chain may reassess their partnerships and sourcing practices to ensure compliance with U.S. sanctions, potentially leading to a shift away from suppliers linked to illicit trade. This, in turn, could further restrict the financial resources available to M23 terrorists and their supporters. Additionally, governments and international organisations may intensify their monitoring and enforcement efforts, amplifying the sanctions’ impact at the local level.

Potential for Change and Accountability

The sanctions are designed to have immediate punitive effects, but their ultimate goal is to bring about positive change in behaviour. By targeting the financial and operational capabilities of key actors, the U.S. aims to create leverage for diplomatic negotiations and conflict resolution. The sanctions signal a willingness to engage with those who demonstrate a genuine commitment to peace and accountability, offering a pathway for rehabilitation and removal from the sanctions list.

For Kabarebe and Kanyuka, this presents an opportunity to reassess their roles in the terrorism and explore alternatives that align with international norms and expectations. The sanctions underscore the importance of transparency, accountability, and adherence to the rule of law, principles that are essential for achieving lasting stability in the eastern DRC. Whether they choose to embrace this opportunity remains to be seen, but the sanctions undoubtedly alter the landscape in which they operate, compelling them to reconsider their strategies and alliances.

In conclusion, the sanctions imposed by OFAC represent a multifaceted approach to addressing the root causes of instability in the eastern DRC. By targeting the financial and operational foundations of key figures and their networks, the U.S. aims to disrupt the cycles of violence and exploitation that have plagued the region for decades. While the immediate impact is punitive, the long-term objective is to foster conditions conducive to peace and sustainable development, holding accountable those who have contributed to the crisis and encouraging a shift toward constructive engagement.

Broader Geopolitical Implications: A Catalyst for Regional and Global Realignments

The sanctions imposed by the U.S. Department of the Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) on James Kabarebe, Lawrence Kanyuka Kingston, and their associated entities are not merely punitive measures directed at individual actors; they represent a seismic shift in the geopolitical landscape of Central Africa and beyond. These sanctions have far-reaching implications that extend well beyond the borders of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Rwanda, reshaping alliances, testing diplomatic relationships, and influencing global perceptions of accountability in conflict zones. The ripple effects of these measures will reverberate across the Great Lakes region, the African continent, and the international community, challenging existing power dynamics and prompting a recalibration of strategic priorities.

Strained Regional Alliances: The Rift Between Rwanda and Its Neighbors

The sanctions have had an immediate and visible impact on Rwanda’s relationships with its neighbours and regional partners. For many years, Rwanda has positioned itself as a stabilising force in the Great Lakes region. It has done this by using its post-genocide recovery narrative and its role in regional peacekeeping missions to cultivate a reputation as a responsible actor. However, the designation of James Kabarebe, a high-ranking Rwandan official, and the explicit acknowledgment of Rwanda’s support for M23 terrorists have exposed contradictions in this narrative. The sanctions call into question the sincerity of Rwanda’s stated commitment to regional stability, casting a shadow over its diplomatic engagements and undermining its credibility on the international stage.

The impact on Rwanda’s bilateral relations with the DRC is particularly acute. Despite intermittent efforts at rapprochement, the two countries have been embroiled in a contentious relationship marked by mutual distrust and accusations of interference. The sanctions serve to reinforce the DRC’s longstanding allegations that Rwanda has been covertly supporting M23 terrorists to advance its own geopolitical and economic interests. The validation of Kinshasa’s claims could embolden the DRC to adopt a more confrontational stance towards Rwanda, potentially escalating tensions into open hostility. Such a scenario would not only jeopardise the fragile peace agreements brokered by regional bodies like the East African Community (EAC) and Southern African Development Community (SADAC), but also risk drawing other neighbouring states into the conflict, further destabilising the region.

Beyond the DRC, Rwanda’s strained relations with other regional powers, such as Uganda and Burundi, could also deteriorate. Historically, both countries have viewed Rwanda’s military interventions in the DRC with suspicion, fearing that Kigali’s ambitions might extend beyond its borders. The sanctions provide these nations with additional ammunition to challenge Rwanda’s regional hegemony, potentially leading to a realignment of alliances within the Great Lakes region. For instance, Uganda, which has a complex relationship with Rwanda, might seek to strengthen ties with the DRC to counterbalance Kigali’s influence. Similarly, Burundi, which has accused Rwanda of supporting opposition groups, could use the sanctions as leverage to demand greater accountability from its northern neighbour.

Testing International Partnerships: The Role of Western Powers and Multilateral Institutions

The sanctions also pose significant challenges for Rwanda’s relationships with its traditional allies, particularly Western powers such as the United States, the United Kingdom and France. These countries have historically provided Rwanda with substantial diplomatic, financial and military support, viewing it as a model of post-conflict recovery and a reliable partner in addressing regional security concerns. However, the designation of Kabarebe and the exposure of Rwanda’s complicity in M23’s destabilising activities have forced these allies to confront uncomfortable truths about their partnership with Kigali.

For the United States, the sanctions reflect a recalibration of its policy towards Rwanda, signalling a shift from tacit tolerance of Kigali’s actions in the DRC to active opposition. This shift is indicative of a broader trend in U.S. foreign policy, where there is an increasing prioritisation of accountability and adherence to international norms over strategic expediency. While the sanctions have been framed by the Biden administration as a measure to promote peace and stability in the region, they also highlight the growing divergence between Washington’s values-driven approach and Rwanda’s pragmatic pursuit of national interests. This tension could strain the bilateral relationship, particularly if Rwanda perceives the sanctions as an affront to its sovereignty or an attempt to undermine its regional influence.

The United Kingdom and France, two countries with profound economic and cultural ties to Rwanda, are faced with a challenging balancing act in responding to the sanctions. The inclusion of Kingston Fresh and Kingston Holding, companies registered in the UK and France respectively, on the sanctions list highlights the extensive reach of Rwanda’s networks of influence into European territories. This could prompt a review by London and Paris of their regulatory frameworks and enhanced oversight of businesses operating within their borders to prevent their misuse for illicit activities. At the same time, these countries must navigate the diplomatic fallout of being implicated in Rwanda’s schemes, which could damage their reputations as champions of transparency and good governance.

Multilateral institutions, such as the United Nations and the African Union, are also grappling with the implications of the sanctions. While these organisations have long condemned M23’s terrorism and called for accountability, the designation of Kabarebe and Kanyuka raises questions about their effectiveness in enforcing compliance. The sanctions highlight the limitations of existing mechanisms for addressing cross-border terrorism and underscore the need for more robust frameworks to hold state and non-state actors accountable. This realisation could spur renewed efforts to strengthen regional security architectures and enhance collaboration between international bodies, though such initiatives are likely to face resistance from states wary of external interference in their internal affairs.

Shifting Global Perceptions: Accountability and the Future of Conflict Resolution

On a global scale, the sanctions mark a significant turning point in the evolving discourse on accountability and conflict resolution. By targeting prominent figures such as Kabarebe and Kanyuka, the U.S. has demonstrated its commitment to holding individuals accountable for their roles in perpetuating instability, regardless of their positions of power or influence. This approach aligns with a growing international consensus that leaders and elites cannot evade responsibility for their actions simply by invoking state sovereignty or political necessity. The sanctions therefore set a precedent for how the international community might address similar crises in other regions, reinforcing the principle that accountability is a prerequisite for lasting peace.

However, the sanctions also raise important questions about the efficacy of punitive measures in achieving their intended outcomes. Critics argue that sanctions alone are insufficient to resolve deeply entrenched conflicts, particularly when they fail to address the root causes of instability, such as governance deficits, economic inequality, and historical grievances. In the case of the eastern DRC, the sanctions may succeed in curtailing the activities of M23 terrorists and its allies in the short term, but they do little to address the structural issues that have fuelled the chronic state-sponsored terrorism for decades. Without complementary efforts to promote inclusive governance, economic development, and social reconciliation, the risk of renewed terorism remains high.

Furthermore, the sanctions demonstrate the intricacies involved in navigating the intersection of geopolitics, economics and human rights in conflict zones. The involvement of Western powers and multinational corporations in the exploitation of the DRC’s mineral wealth highlights the extent to which global demand for critical resources perpetuates cycles of violence and exploitation. Addressing this issue requires a coordinated global response that goes beyond sanctions to include reforms in supply chain transparency, corporate accountability and international trade regulations. Addressing these systemic issues is therefore essential if the international community is to break the cycle of terrorism and exploitation that has plagued the eastern DRC for so long.

A Call for Regional and Global Leadership

The sanctions imposed on Kabarebe and Kanyuka highlight the urgent need for leadership at both the regional and global level to address the underlying causes of instability in the eastern DRC. For African leaders, this means prioritising regional cooperation and dialogue over zero-sum competition and pursuing solutions that prioritise the well-being of affected populations over narrow national interests. For Western powers, it entails striking a balance between upholding principles of accountability and respecting the sovereignty of African states, while also recognizing the interconnectedness of global security and economic prosperity.

The sanctions have exposed the complexities of the terrorism in the eastern DRC and the challenges of achieving meaningful progress in a region scarred by decades of violence and exploitation. It is clear that peace and stability cannot be imposed from the outside; they must be built from within through sustained efforts to address the grievances of marginalised communities, dismantle networks of exploitation and foster inclusive governance. The international community must rise to meet this challenge, and it is clear that the stakes could not be higher for the people of the eastern DRC and the broader global order.

Connection to Critical Mineral Supply Chains: The Nexus of Conflict and Global Demand

The eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is a region of significant strategic importance, due to its position as a key player in the global supply chain for critical minerals that are essential to the modern technology and green energy transitions. The region’s abundant natural resources, including cobalt, coltan, tin, tungsten, and gold, have long attracted the attention of multinational corporations, governments, and armed groups alike. However, the extraction of these resources has been inextricably linked to the cycles of violence and instability that have plagued the DRC for decades. The recent sanctions imposed by the U.S. Department of the Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) on James Kabarebe, Lawrence Kanyuka Kingston, and their associated entities underscore the critical intersection of conflict, mineral extraction, and international trade. These measures highlight how the illicit trade in Congolese minerals not only fuels the activities of terrorist groups like the March 23 terrorist outfit (M23) but also implicates global industries and consumers in perpetuating the crisis.

The Strategic Importance of Critical Minerals

The eastern DRC is home to some of the world’s largest mineral deposits, which are indispensable to the production of electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), renewable energy technologies and advanced defence systems. Cobalt, for instance, is a key component in lithium-ion batteries, which power everything from smartphones to EVs. The DRC produces approximately 70% of the world’s cobalt, with much of it sourced from artisanal mines in North and South Kivu provinces. Another mineral abundant in the region is coltan, which is refined into tantalum, a heat-resistant metal used in capacitors for consumer electronics. Tin and tungsten are critical for soldering and strengthening alloys, while gold is coveted for its conductivity and durability.

The global demand for these minerals has surged recently, driven by the rapid expansion of the technology and renewable energy sectors. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the transition to a low-carbon economy could increase demand for critical minerals by up to six times by 2040. This surge in demand has placed immense pressure on supply chains, with companies scrambling to secure access to raw materials. Unfortunately, this scramble has often overlooked the ethical and environmental costs of extraction, particularly in conflict-affected regions like the eastern DRC.

Illicit Extraction and Smuggling: Feeding the War Machine

The extraction and trade of minerals in the eastern DRC have long been marred by illegality, coercion and violence, with terrorist outfits such as M23, along with their state-backed allies, capitalising on the region’s mineral wealth to finance their terrorism activities. These outfits control mining sites through force, often employing child labour and subjecting workers to hazardous conditions. These minerals are then moved across the porous border into Rwanda, where they are incorporated into the global supply chain under the guise of Rwandan exports. This process obscures the true origins of the minerals and enables the perpetrators of violence to profit from their illicit activities.

James Kabarebe’s role in managing the extraction and export of Congolese minerals exemplifies how state actors facilitate this illicit trade. Under his oversight, minerals extracted from M23-controlled territories are transported to Rwanda, processed, and sold to international buyers, allowing Rwanda to benefit economically while simultaneously funding M23’s terrorism campaigns. The involvement of companies like Kingston Holding, owned by Lawrence Kanyuka Kingston, further complicates the supply chain, as these entities serve as intermediaries that obscure the connection between conflict and commerce.

The sanctions imposed on Kabarebe and Kanyuka, along with their associated businesses, aim to disrupt this illicit trade by targeting the financial and operational networks that sustain it. By freezing assets and prohibiting transactions involving these individuals and entities, the U.S. seeks to sever the link between mineral extraction and the funding of armed terrorist groups. However, the effectiveness of these measures depends on the willingness of international actors – governments, corporations, and consumers – to scrutinise their supply chains and hold violators accountable.

Corporate Complicity and Supply Chain Vulnerabilities

The involvement of multinational corporations in the exploitation of Congolese minerals gives rise to numerous concerning questions regarding corporate complicity in the perpetuation of conflict. Many of the world’s largest technology and automotive companies rely on minerals sourced from the DRC, either directly or indirectly, for the manufacture of their products. While some companies have implemented due diligence measures and traced the origins of their raw materials, others have been criticised for ignoring the unethical practices that underpin their supply chains.

Investigations by organisations such as Global Witness and Amnesty International have revealed that cobalt mined in the DRC often passes through multiple intermediaries before reaching smelters and refineries in China, where it is processed and sold to global manufacturers. This lack of transparency makes it difficult to determine whether the cobalt in a smartphone or EV battery was sourced ethically or through exploitative practices. Similarly, the trade in coltan and gold has been linked to armed terrorist groups and corrupt officials who profit from the chaos and insecurity in the eastern DRC.

The sanctions imposed on Kabarebe and Kanyuka underscore the vulnerabilities inherent in these supply chains and the pressing need for reform. By directly targeting individuals and entities engaged in illicit trade, the U.S. is sending a clear signal to corporations that they must assume greater responsibility for ensuring the integrity of their supply chains. This entails conducting thorough audits, adopting traceability technologies, and collaborating with civil society organisations to monitor compliance with ethical standards. Failure to do so poses a significant risk of reputational damage and the perpetuation of the conditions that drive terrorism and exploitation in the DRC.

The Role of International Frameworks and Regulatory Efforts

For many years, there have been ongoing efforts to address the link between mineral extraction and conflict in the DRC, with varying degrees of success. One of the most significant initiatives is the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, specifically Section 1502, which was enacted in 2010. This provision requires U.S.-listed companies to disclose whether their products contain minerals sourced from conflict-affected areas in the DRC or its neighbouring countries. The objective of Section 1502 was to enhance transparency in supply chains and reduce the financial incentives for armed groups to control mining operations. While the legislation has succeeded in raising awareness about the issue, its implementation has been uneven, with critics arguing that it inadvertently harmed legitimate artisanal miners by reducing demand for minerals from the region due to compliance costs and reputational risks.

In addition to national regulations, international frameworks such as the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme (KPCS) have sought to address the trade in conflict minerals, particularly diamonds. However, the KPCS has faced criticism for its limited scope and enforcement mechanisms, which fail to adequately address the broader spectrum of minerals implicated in funding violence. Similarly, the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), a global standard for promoting transparency in the extractive sector, has struggled to gain traction in the DRC due to weak governance structures and resistance from vested interests.

In addition, regional initiatives have been implemented to address the illicit mineral trade. For instance, the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR) established the Regional Initiative against the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources (RINR) in 2010, introducing certification schemes for tin, tantalum, tungsten, and gold. These schemes aim to ensure that minerals are sourced responsibly and do not contribute to conflict. While the initiative has made some progress, challenges remain, including insufficient capacity for monitoring and enforcement, corruption, and the persistence of smuggling networks.

The sanctions imposed on Kabarebe and Kanyuka represent a renewed effort to complement these existing frameworks by targeting individuals and entities directly involved in the illicit trade. By focusing on high-profile figures who orchestrate the exploitation of Congolese resources, the U.S. is signalling a shift toward more targeted and impactful measures. This approach is in line with growing calls for accountability at all levels of the supply chain, from miners and intermediaries to corporate buyers and consumers.

Toward a More Sustainable and Ethical Supply Chain

Addressing the link between mineral extraction and conflict in the DRC requires a multifaceted approach that combines regulatory measures, corporate responsibility, and community empowerment. Strengthening international frameworks like the ICGLR’s certification schemes and expanding their scope to include additional minerals could enhance transparency and accountability. At the same time, governments must invest in building institutional capacity to enforce regulations and combat corruption, ensuring that these initiatives translate into tangible improvements on the ground.

For corporations, the sanctions serve as a reminder of the importance of adopting robust due diligence practices and prioritising ethical sourcing. Technologies such as blockchain offer promising solutions for improving traceability and verifying the origins of minerals, enabling companies to demonstrate their commitment to responsible procurement. Collaborations between industry stakeholders, civil society organisations, and governments can further strengthen these efforts by fostering dialogue and sharing best practices.

Finally, empowering local communities is essential to breaking the cycle of exploitation and violence. Artisanal miners, who constitute a substantial proportion of the workforce in the eastern DRC, frequently bear the brunt of regulatory measures without reaping the benefits of increased scrutiny. Initiatives that formalise artisanal mining, provide fair wages, and improve working conditions can help integrate these miners into the global economy while reducing their vulnerability to exploitation by armed groups.

In conclusion, the link between critical mineral supply chains and the conflict in the eastern DRC emphasises the necessity for a coordinated and comprehensive response, as well as the importance of addressing the broader systemic issues that must be addressed. The sanctions imposed on Kabarebe and Kanyuka highlight the role of individual actors in perpetuating this crisis. By strengthening international frameworks, holding corporations accountable, and empowering local communities, the global community can work towards a future where the wealth of the DRC’s natural resources benefits its people rather than fuelling cycles of violence and exploitation.

U.S. Commitment to Peace and Accountability: A Multifaceted Approach to Resolving the Crisis in the Eastern DRC

The United States has imposed sanctions on James Kabarebe, Lawrence Kanyuka Kingston and associated entities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). This action is part of a strategy to promote peace, stability, and accountability in the region. It is a key component of a broader approach that includes diplomatic engagement, humanitarian assistance, economic pressure and support for regional cooperation. By targeting key actors who have fuelled the conflict in the eastern DRC, the U.S. seeks to dismantle the networks of exploitation and violence while simultaneously fostering conditions conducive to sustainable peace. This multifaceted approach underscores Washington’s recognition that resolving the crisis requires addressing both the symptoms and root causes of instability.

Diplomatic Engagement: Building Alliances for Peace

At the core of the U.S. strategy is a coordinated approach to engaging diplomatically with regional and international stakeholders to create a unified response to the crisis. The Biden administration has repeatedly emphasised the significance of multilateralism in addressing complex global challenges, and the situation in the eastern DRC is a prime example of this. The U.S. has been active in various forums, including the United Nations Security Council, the African Union, and the East African Community (EAC), with a view to encouraging collective action to de-escalate tensions and promote dialogue among conflicting parties.

A notable example of this diplomatic push is the U.S.’s collaboration with the EAC, which has been mediating peace talks between the Congolese government and M23 terrorists. Previous attempts at negotiation have faltered due to mistrust and competing interests, but the U.S. has leveraged its influence to encourage greater transparency and inclusivity in these discussions. By supporting the EAC’s efforts, the U.S. aims to ensure that any agreements reached are not only comprehensive but also enforceable, addressing the grievances of marginalised communities while holding perpetrators of violence accountable.

Furthermore, the U.S. has engaged bilaterally with key regional players, including Rwanda, Uganda, and Burundi, to address their roles in the conflict. These engagements have been marked by a dual approach: urging restraint and accountability while offering incentives for constructive behaviour. For instance, the U.S. has linked its foreign aid and trade partnerships with Rwanda to measurable progress in reducing cross-border interference and supporting peace building initiatives. This dual-pronged strategy reflects the U.S. understanding that lasting peace in the eastern DRC cannot be achieved without the cooperation of its neighbours.

Humanitarian Assistance: Alleviating the Suffering of Affected Populations

The humanitarian dimension of the U.S. commitment to the eastern DRC is equally critical, as decades of conflict have left millions of Congolese displaced, malnourished, and vulnerable to disease, with women and children bearing the brunt of the suffering. In response, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and other federal agencies have increased their humanitarian assistance programs, providing life-saving aid to those affected by the violence.

In fiscal year 2024 alone, the U.S. allocated over $500 million in humanitarian assistance to the DRC, making it one of the largest donors to the country. This funding supports a wide range of activities, including food distribution, healthcare services, shelter provision, and protection programs for survivors of gender-based violence. The U.S. has also prioritized education initiatives, recognizing that investing in the next generation is essential to breaking the cycle of poverty and conflict.

In addition to providing direct aid, the U.S. has worked to enhance the capacity of local and international humanitarian organisations operating in the region. By offering technical assistance, training and logistical support, the U.S. ensures that aid reaches even the most remote and insecure areas. This focus on localisation reflects a growing realisation that effective humanitarian responses must be grounded in the needs and priorities of affected communities.

Economic Pressure: Targeting the Financial Lifelines of Conflict

While diplomatic efforts and humanitarian assistance address the immediate and long-term needs of the eastern DRC, economic pressure remains a cornerstone of the U.S. strategy to curb the activities of terrorist outfits like M23. The sanctions imposed on Kabarebe and Kanyuka are emblematic of this approach, targeting the financial infrastructure that sustains the conflict. The freezing of assets and blocking of transactions involving sanctioned individuals and entities aims to disrupt the flow of resources that fund military campaigns and perpetuate violence.

These measures are complemented by broader efforts to reform the global supply chain for critical minerals. The U.S. Department of Commerce and the Department of State have collaborated with industry leaders to develop guidelines for responsible sourcing, encouraging companies to adopt traceability technologies and conduct rigorous audits of their suppliers. Furthermore, the U.S. has supported initiatives aimed at formalising artisanal mining in the DRC, providing miners with access to fair markets and reducing their reliance on exploitative intermediaries.

The sanctions also send a clear message to other actors – both state and non-state – that the U.S. will not tolerate actions that undermine peace and stability in the region. By holding individuals accountable for their roles in the conflict, the U.S. seeks to deter others from engaging in similar activities, creating a deterrent effect that reinforces its commitment to accountability.

Supporting Regional Cooperation: Strengthening Institutions for Peace

The United States recognises that the challenges faced by the eastern DRC cannot be resolved in isolation, and has therefore placed a strong emphasis on supporting regional cooperation as a pathway to lasting peace. This includes bolstering the capacity of regional institutions such as the East African Community (EAC) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) to mediate disputes, monitor ceasefires, and implement peace agreements. The U.S. has provided financial and technical assistance to these organizations, enabling them to deploy peacekeeping missions and establish early warning systems to prevent the escalation of violence.

Furthermore, the U.S. has championed initiatives aimed at addressing the structural drivers of conflict in the Great Lakes region. These include promoting inclusive governance, combating corruption, and fostering economic development. By investing in programmes that empower marginalised communities and create opportunities for youth, the U.S. aims to address the underlying grievances that lead to recruitment into armed groups, aligning with the global trend of shifting from reactive to proactive approaches to conflict resolution.

Accountability and Justice: Pursuing a Future Free of Impunity

A key part of the U.S. commitment to peace in the eastern DRC is the pursuit of accountability and justice for victims of atrocities during the conflict. The sanctions on Kabarebe and Kanyuka are part of a larger effort to hold perpetrators accountable for their actions, whether through targeted measures or support for judicial processes. The U.S. has provided backing for the efforts of the International Criminal Court (ICC) and domestic courts to investigate and prosecute crimes in the region, with the provision of funding and expertise to ensure justice is served.

At the same time, the U.S. recognises that accountability must go hand in hand with reconciliation, and has supported community-based initiatives that bring together former combatants and civilians to foster dialogue and healing. These programmes emphasise restorative justice, enabling victims to share their experiences and perpetrators to take responsibility for their actions, with a view to addressing the psychological scars of conflict and laying the groundwork for a more peaceful and cohesive society.

A Call for Global Solidarity

The U.S. has adopted a multifaceted approach to resolving the crisis in the eastern DRC, reflecting a deep-seated belief that peace and stability are not just regional concerns but global imperatives. In today’s interconnected world, the consequences of conflict in one part of the globe can have far-reaching consequences, affecting everything from supply chains to migration patterns. In light of this, the U.S. has called on the international community to join its efforts, urging governments, businesses, and civil society organizations to contribute their resources and expertise to building a brighter future for the people of the DRC.

This call for solidarity is particularly relevant in the context of the global transition to renewable energy. As demand for critical minerals continues to rise, it is vital that the international community ensures that the benefits of this transition are shared equitably and do not come at the expense of vulnerable populations. By aligning economic interests with ethical principles, the world can help transform the eastern DRC from a site of exploitation and violence into a model of sustainable development and peace.

In conclusion, the commitment of the U.S. to peace and accountability in the eastern DRC is indicative of its belief in the power of collective action to overcome even the most entrenched challenges. Through diplomacy, humanitarian assistance, economic pressure, and support for regional cooperation, the U.S. is working to create a future where the people of the DRC can live free from fear and deprivation. The success of this vision is not only contingent on the actions of the U.S., but also on the commitment of the global community to stand in solidarity with those who have endured the most.

Conclusion: Toward a Path of Accountability and Peace

The sanctions imposed by the U.S. Department of the Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) on James Kabarebe, Lawrence Kanyuka Kingston, and their associated entities mark a pivotal moment in the ongoing efforts to restore peace and stability to the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). These measures underscore the complexity of the crisis, revealing how deeply intertwined political ambitions, military strategies, and economic exploitation are in perpetuating the region’s instability. By targeting key figures who have orchestrated and benefited from the chaos, the U.S. has clearly communicated that impunity will no longer be tolerated and that those who profit from violence and exploitation must be held accountable.

The implications of these sanctions extend far beyond the individuals and entities directly affected. These sanctions highlight the intricate web of alliances and networks that support terrorist groups like the March 23 terrorist outfit (M23), emphasising the critical role of external actors, particularly Rwanda, in fuelling the conflict. At the same time, they draw attention to the global demand for critical minerals, which has created perverse incentives for exploitation and violence in the DRC. This interconnectedness underscores the need for a coordinated international response that addresses not only the immediate drivers of conflict, but also the systemic issues that perpetuate cycles of violence and deprivation.

The U.S.’s multifaceted approach, combining sanctions, diplomatic engagement, humanitarian assistance, and support for regional cooperation, demonstrates a nuanced understanding of the challenges facing the eastern DRC. However, the success of these efforts ultimately hinges on the willingness of the international community to act in concert. Governments, corporations, and civil society organisations must recognise their shared responsibility in addressing the root causes of the crisis. This includes implementing robust due diligence measures to ensure ethical sourcing, investing in sustainable development initiatives that empower local communities, and supporting institutions that promote transparency and accountability.

As the world grapples with the urgent need to transition to renewable energy, the lessons of the eastern DRC serve as a stark reminder of the human cost of unchecked resource extraction. The global demand for cobalt, coltan and other critical minerals cannot come at the expense of the rights and dignity of those living in proximity to these deposits. We must ask ourselves how we can create a future where the wealth of the earth benefits all of humanity, rather than fuelling conflict and inequality. The answer lies in our collective ability to prioritise justice, equity, and sustainability — not just as ideals, but as actionable commitments.

Ultimately, it is clear that sanctions alone cannot pave the way for peace in the eastern DRC; a fundamental shift in our approach is required. The international community has a chance to create a legacy of accountability, resilience, and hope by standing in solidarity with the people of the DRC and turning the tide of history. We must ask ourselves: will we rise to meet this challenge, or will we allow the shadows of exploitation and violence to linger? The choice is ultimately up to us.

Joram Jojo